期末題目與答案整理

Wk12L2 TPO 39L2

P Since ethnography is all about the descriptive study of an individual culture, film has proved to have great value as a tool for anthropologists in their research. Let's look at a particularly effective approach to ethnographic filmmaking, which was developed in the 1970s. This particular style of ethnographic filmmaking is called the community determined approach. The intent of the community determined approach, is to achieve the kind of hmm, shared authorship. See in this approach, the goals of the project and how the information will be used are discussed ahead of time. And so a culture, a community, is not just a focus of the film, they are actually equal participants in the whole ethnographic process. In this way the film revolves around the actual values and concerns of the individuals in the community. And it honors an individual's ethical right to control how he or she is presented in the media. Several of these films were made in Alaskan communities in the 1970s.

SA So how does it work? You know, the community determined part.

P Well, it takes a lot of preparation. First, way before filming begins, the filmmakers visit the community and meet with the village council, who are the decision-makers of the community. A film, if available, is shown to the village councils, so that they get an idea of the experience of another community. After the meeting, the filmmakers leave and the village council is given all the time they need to think about what was discussed. Later, if the village council members are interested, they send a letter or call.

SA There’s no follow-up meeting?

P Not unless they want one. See, this helps remove any pressure to say yes - the social pressure from the filmmakers’ presence.

SA So if they agree, then what?

P Then, the filmmakers start living in the community. See, another major point in the community determined approach, it’s very important that the filmmakers plan to stay in the community for an extended period of time. Not weeks, but months. And really, there are several reasons for this. Any ideas? SB The filmmakers could get a more realistic sense of the pace of life in that community? Uh, its daily rhythm? P Correct, and it allows the filmmakers to shed some of their assumptions so that they better interpret what they see. SB I bet it also takes the mystery out of the filmmaking process. You know, everyone has time to get used to the filmmakers and their equipment. P Exactly! Trust is established and relationships are built first. SB Wow, this seems like a long process. It must cost a fortune! P It does! Even with a small film crew, any project as involved as this is bound to. SB Okay, so who decides what goes into the film? P Well, such decisions are made by general consensus within the community. So for instance, the community, not the filmmakers decide who is to be interviewed for the films. Control of the interview is in the interviewee’s hands. If the person being interviewed says to stop at any time, the recording stops. He or she states where they wish to be filmed and when, and what topic they wish to speak about. The community members review the footage both midway and at the end of the filming. And if they want any scene deleted, it gets removed. That’s the level of respect, and regard, for the interviewee’s preferences, and those of the community in general. SA So, then, what language is everything filmed in? P Excellent question! Language is culture, isn’t it? So the native language, rather than a dubbed voice over in the filmmaker’s language, is the primary language of the film. This way a speaker’s emotions and manner of expression really come through. Even if we don’t know their language subtitles are placed in a secondary position, at the bottom of the screen. SA And the subtitles probably give only the gist of what’s actually being said. P Yeah. A word for word translation could become too complicated, or it’d go by too fast on the screen.

What are the speakers mainly discussing?

• A.The effects of ethnographic films on the communities being studied
• B.The process of making a community-determined film
• C.The topics typically discussed in community-determined films
• D.The efforts of filmmakers to record in their own communities

What is one way ethnographers try to gain a community’s interest in participating in a film?

• A.They visit regularly to discuss any concerns.
• B.They send letters describing the purpose of the film.
• C.They research the history of the community.
• D.They show a film about another community.

What does the professor imply about the role of the village council members?

• A.They decide whether or not a film will be made.
• B.They make sure all community members appear in the film.
• C.They prefer to do most of the interviewing themselves.
• D.They are generally not involved in the filmmaking process.

According to the lecture, why do ethnographers live within the community they are filming?

• A.To teach filmmaking techniques to the community members
• B.To earn the trust of the community members
• C.To learn about daily life in the community
• D.To reduce the cost of travel to the community

What does the professor imply about the interview process?

• A.It is the most time-consuming part of the filmmaking project.
• B.It results in the most interesting scenes in community-determined films.
• C.It does not give the filmmakers enough control over the finished product.
• D.It is to a large extent controlled by the community members.

What do the speakers suggest are two shortcomings of community-determined films?

• A.They are often expensive to produce.
• B.They are too long for most audiences to enjoy.
• C.They do not translate people’s exact words.
• D.They rarely contain all the scenes to community wants.

Wk13L2 TPO34L2

P At the end of yesterday's class, we were uh discussing landfills and the hundreds of millions of tons of everyday garbage which are deposited into them each year in the United States. It's a growing problem. Quite simply, we are running out of space to put our garbage. And this is especially true for solid organic waste, food scraps from home or food processing plants, waste from farm, that sort of thing. Did you know that two thirds of the wastes sitting in our landfills is organic material? We have government recycling programs for materials like plastic, glass, and metal, yet widespread solutions for organic waste materials haven't really been addressed in the United States. I think this is just asking for trouble in the future. So today, I wanna talk about a technology that offers a potential solution to the problem - anaerobic phased solids digestion, or APS digestion. First of all, what does anaerobic mean? Uh, anyone? S1 Without oxygen? P Correct. APS digestion uses anaerobic bacteria, ones that thrive in the absence of oxygen, to consume, to, to break down organic material. S2 Excuse me professor. Umm, those anaerobic bacteria you're talking about, well, aren't anaerobic bacteria also used in waste water treatment plants? P Yes, in fact they are. Would you like to explain this to the class? S2 Sure. So, when waste water is treated, one of the byproducts is a thick liquid called sludge. And, aren't anaerobic bacteria used to break down the sludge? P That's right. Anaerobic bacteria have been used in waste water treatment for decades. S2 So, how is this technology different? P Good question. Uh, the anaerobic digestion system used in waste water plants are designed to treat sludge, not solids. Now, in the past, researchers have attempted to treat solid organic waste with that same equipment, but there was always problem. In order to process the solid waste, the, the kind we find in landfills, you had to pretreat the solids to turn them into sludge. First by breaking the material apart mechanically into small particles, and then adding a lot of water, until you had a kind of thick, soupy mix that the equipment could handle. But that extra step took time, and required a lot of energy.

What is the lecture mainly about?

• A.A new use for methane gas produced in landfills
• B.Environmental regulations regarding the management of organic wastes
• C.Removing bacteria from landfills and wastewater treatment plants
• D.A potentially useful technology for managing organic wastes

What is the professor’s opinion about the use of landfills to manage solid organic waste?

• A.Landfills should be expanded to accommodate more types of waste.
• B.Landfills are not a suitable long-term solution for solid organic waste disposal.
• C.Landfills should be built farther away from population centers.
• D.Landfills would be an effective means of recycling solid organic waste from farms.

What does the professor imply about processing solid organic waste in equipment designed for processing wastewater?

• A.It is an economical way to process solid waste.
• B.It is practical only for treating large amounts of solid waste.
• C.It is not an efficient way to process solid waste.
• D.It could reduce the cost of treating wastewater.

What does the professor suggest about methane and hydrogen gas?

• A.They have beneficial uses if harnessed and contained.
• B.They are destroyed in a later stage of APS processing.
• C.They are both extracted during the first phase of APS digestion.
• D.They are necessary to activate the anaerobic digestion process.

According to the professor, what are two advantages of APS digestion systems?

• A.They can eliminate the need to transport the waste material.
• B.They can handle both organic and nonorganic waste.
• C.They can turn waste into fuel for electrical power generation.
• D.They can be monitored efficiently from one central location.

What does the professor say is a promising focus for future research into APS digestion systems?

• A.Trying to find a way to reduce the size of the APS containers
• B.Trying to set up a demonstration project with a university
• C.Determining whether food scraps from restaurants can be used in the system
• D.Determining the most efficient combination of anaerobic bacteria

Wk15L2 TPO 31L2

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Professor As we’ve discussed, Earth’s crust is made up of large plates that rest on a mantle of molten rock. These plates… uh… now these tectonic plates support the continents and oceans. Over time, the tectonic plates move and shift, which moves the continents and the ocean floors too. Once it was understood how these plates move, it was possible to determine past movements of Earth’s continents and, how these slow movements have reshaped Earth’s features at different times. OK. Well, as studying the movements of the plates can tell us about the location of the continents in the past, it can conceivably tell us about their location in the future too, right? So, in recent years, some geologists have used plate tectonic theory to make what they call geopredictions. Geopredictions are guesses about what Earth’s surface might look like millions of years from now. So, we know how certain continents are currently moving. For example, the continents of Africa has been creeping north toward Europe. And Australia has been making its way north too, toward Asia. Does anyone know what’s happening to the Americas? I… I think we’ve talked about that before. Lisa? Student A They are moving westward, away from Europe and Africa. Right? Professor Right. And what makes us think that? Student A The Atlantic Ocean floor is spreading and getting wider, so there is more ocean between the Americas and uh, Europe and Africa. Professor OK. And why is it spreading? Student A Well, the seafloor is spilt. There is a ridge, a mountain range that runs north and south there. And the rock material flows up from Earth’s interior here, at the split, which forces the two sides of the ocean floor to spread apart, to make room for the new rock material. Professor Good. And that means, over the short term… uh… and by short term I mean 50 million years, that’s a blink of the eye in geological time. Umm… over the short term, we can predict that the Americas will continue to move westward, farther away from Europe, while Africa and Australia will continue to move northward. But what about over the long term? Say 250 million years or more. Well, over that length of time, forecasts become more uncertain. But lots of geologists predict that eventually all the continents, including Antarctica, will merge and become one giant land mass, a super continent, one researcher is calling Pangaea Ultima, which more or less means the last super continent.

Now, how that might happen is open to some debate. Some geologists believe that the Americas will continue to move westward and eventually merge with East Asia. This hypothesis is based on the direction the Americas are moving in now. But others hypothesize that a new super continent will form in a different way. They think that a new subduction zone will might occur at the western edge of the Atlantic Ocean. Paul, can you remind us what a subduction zone is? Student B Yeah. Umm… basically, a subduction zone is where two tectonic plates collide. So if an ocean floor tectonic plate meets the edge of a continent and they push against each other, the heavier one sinks down and goes under the other one. So the… umm… the oceanic plate is made of denser and heavier rock, so it begins to sink down under the continental plate and into the mantle. Professor Right. So the ocean floor would kind of slide under the edge of the continent. And once the ocean plate begins to sink, it would be affected by another force – slab pull. Slab pull happens at the subduction zone. So to continue with our example… As the ocean floor plate begins to sink down into the mantle, it would drag or pull the entire plate along with it. So more and more of this plate, the ocean floor, would go down under the continent into the mantle. OK? So, as I said, currently the Atlantic Ocean floor is spreading, getting wider, but some researchers speculate that eventually a subduction zone will occur where the oceanic plate meets the continental plate of the Americas. If that happens, slab pull could draw the oceanic crust under the continent, actually causing the Americas to move eastward toward Europe and the ocean floor to get smaller. That is, the Atlantic Ocean would start to close up, narrowing the distance between the eastern edge of the Americas and Europe and Africa. So they form a single super continent.

What is the lecture mainly about?

• A . How to predict the rate of tectonic plate movement
• B . A geologist’s attempt to determine the position of continents in the past.
• C . Some ideas about future movements of Earth’s tectonic plates.
• D . The history of a debate between two plate tectonic theories.

The professor states that some continents are currently moving northward and some are moving westward. Indicate the direction in which the continents are currently moving

	Northward	Westward
Africa	V
Americas		V
Australia	V

What process is currently taking place in the Atlantic Ocean?

• A . One half of the ocean plate is sinking beneath the other half.
• B . New rock is forming between two sections of the ocean floor.
• C . A subduction zone is forming at the eastern edge of the ocean floor.
• D . The ocean plate is moving away from the continental plates that are under the Americas.

What long-term geopredictions do many geologists make?

• A . Continents will become smaller than they are now.
• B . Subduction will cause one continent to sink under an ocean.
• C . North and South America will move away from each other.
• D . The current continents will eventually join together.

Based on the discussion, what happens when a continental plate and an oceanic plate collide?

• A . The edge of the oceanic plate moves down into the mantle.
• B . Slab pull causes the ocean floor to expand.
• C . New rock material rises to the surface at the subduction zone.
• D . Parts of each plate break off into the ocean.

What is the important difference between the two hypotheses discussed by the professor?

• A . They make different predictions about the direction in which the American continents will move.
• B . They make different predictions about how long it will take for Pangaea Ultima to form.
• C . Only one predicts that Asia will eventually begin to move eastward.
• D . Only one predicts that some tectonic plates will eventually stop moving.

Wk16L1 TPO

P So far we've covered biodiversity in the hardwood forests here in the upper peninsula of Michigan from a number of angles. We looked at everything from how biodiversity relates to species stability, to competition for forest resources and more. But now I want to discuss what's called pedodiversity. Pedodiversity is basically soil diversity. When we analyze pedodiversity within an area, we're measuring how much variability there is in soil properties, and how many different types of soil there are in a particular area. So we look at soil chemistry. For example, how much nitrogen or magnesium there is in the soil in one spot. And we compare it with the chemistry of the soil a short distance away. Until recently there hasn't been a lot of attention paid to pedodiversity. But that's changing rapidly. More and more studies are being done in this field. There's a link between biodiversity and pedodiversity - an obvious relationship between soils and flora and fauna, which is why pedodiversity should really be considered in forest management. A high degree of soil variability in a small area is common, particularly within forests. If you compare soils from a forest with soils that don't come from a forest, the amount of variability will most likely be greater in the forest soil. It generally has more diversity. Umm, ok. There are three main causes of pedodiversty within old grove forests, here in our region of Michigan. One is tree species. Different species have different influences on soil formation and soil properties. For example, pine trees drop pine needles, and those needles add a lot of acid to the soil. The organic litter of another tree species might add less acid, but more of something else. A lot of different types of trees in an area might mean more pedodiversity. Another cause? Gaps, created when trees fall. You see, where there are gaps, open areas in the forest, the soil there changes. Umm, for instance, without a tree to absorb radiation from the sun, to offer shade, the full intensity of that radiation reaches the ground. The soil, where the tree used to be, heats up. And without a tree to soak up moisture from the ground the soil remains wetter than in the surrounding forest. With a higher temperature and more moist conditions, the process of organic matter decomposition speeds up. In other words organic matter gets broken down and added into the soil more quickly in these gaps than in the surrounding forest.

Ok, and the third cause, trees being uprooted. When a tree is uprooted, it might fall into some other trees on its way down, thus falling only part way over. Or it might crash all the way down to the forest floor. Either way, if its roots are pulled up from out of the ground as the tree topples over, then there’s usually a big hole, a pit, left in the ground, where the roots used to be. And there’s still a lot of soil attached to the roots, clinging to the roots. As that soil is eventually shed from the roots by rain and wind and the movement of squirrels climbing around, things like that, umm, as the soil is shed, it drops down and forms a little hill of dirt, a mound. Pits and mounds have significantly different soil properties than other areas in the forest. You get a redistribution and mixing of soil as deep roots are ripped up from the ground. Rock fragments can be pulled up too if they’ve gotten entangled with the roots over the years. So rock fragments from the subsoil can end up concentrated on the surface. There are forest management implications I want to point out. Forest management impacts soil quality. And when we better understand pedodiversity, we will be better able to predict the impact of forest management on soil. But in general for positive impact, forest management practices should mimic natural forest processes. And the goal should be to promote pedodiversity, and through this, biodiversity in general. I have a handout, an article on pedodiversity in a section of forest near here. I want you to read it, because it makes a point that I’ve only touched on. From what I’ve been saying about the causes of pedodiversity, you might assume that the relationship between forest dynamics, what happens to the trees, and pedodiversity, is a one way street. As the article explains, forest dynamics affects pedodiversity, but pedodiversity also affects forest dynamics. It’s worth bearing in mind.

What does the professor mainly discuss?

• A.Cause of soil diversity in old-growth forests
• B.The results of a recent research study in a Michigan forest
• C.The impact of Pedodiversity on forest growth
• D.How forest management affects soil diversity

According to the professor, in what way is the soil in forested areas generally different from soil in other areas?

• A.In forested areas, the soil tends to be warmer and moister.
• B.In forested areas, the chemistry of the soil changes more rapidly.
• C.In forested areas, there is usually more variability in soil types.
• D.In forested areas, there is generally more acid in the soil.

What does the professor suggest are the three main causes of pedodiversity in the old-growth hardwood forests she discusses?Click on 3 answers.

• A.The uprooting of trees
• B.The existence of gaps
• C.Current forest-management practices
• D.Diversity of tree species
• E.Changes in climatic conditions

Why does the professer mention radiation from the Sun?

• A.To point out why pits and mounds have soil with unusual properties
• B.To indicate the reason some tree species thrive in Michigan while others do not
• C.To give an example of a factor that cannot be reproduced in forest management
• D.To help explain the effects of forest gaps on soil

Why does the professor consider Pedodiversity an important field of research?

• A.It has challenged fundamental ideas about plant ecology.
• B.It has led to significant discoveries in other fields.
• C.It has implications for forest management.
• D.It is an area of study that is often misunderstood.

Why does the professor give the students an article to read?

• A.To help them understand the relationship between forest dynamics and Pedodiversity
• B.To help them understand how to approach an assignment
• C.To provide them with more information on pits and mounds
• D.To provide them with more exposure to a controversial aspect of pedodiversity